INDIA'S FOREIGN RELATIONS reflect a traditional policy of nonalignment, the exigencies of domestic economic reform and development, and the changing post-Cold War international environment. India's relations with the world have evolved considerably since the British colonial period (1757-1947), when a foreign power monopolized external relations and defense relations. On independence in 1947, few Indians had experience in making or conducting foreign policy. However, the country's oldest political party, the Indian National Congress, had established a small foreign department in 1925 to make overseas contacts and to publicize its freedom struggle. From the late 1920s on, Jawaharlal Nehru, who had the most long-standing interest in world affairs among independence leaders, formulated the Congress stance on international issues. As a member of the interim government in 1946, Nehru articulated India's approach to the world.

During Nehru's tenure as prime minister of India (1947-64), he achieved a domestic consensus on the definition of Indian national interests and foreign policy goals--building a unified and integrated nation-state based on secular, democratic principles; defending Indian territory and protecting its security interests; guaranteeing India's independence internationally through nonalignment; and promoting national economic development unencumbered by overreliance on any country or group of countries. These objectives were closely related to the determinants of India's foreign relations: the historical legacy of South Asia; India's geopolitical position and security requirements; and India's economic needs as a large developing nation. From 1947 until the late 1980s, New Delhi's foreign policy goals enabled it to achieve some successes in carving out an independent international role. Regionally, India was the predominant power because of its size, its population (the world's second-largest after China), and its growing military strength. However, relations with its neighbors, Pakistan in particular, were often tense and fraught with conflict. In addition, globally India's nonaligned stance was not a viable substitute for the political and economic role it wished to play.

India's international influence varied over the years after independence. Indian prestige and moral authority were high in the 1950s and facilitated the acquisition of developmental assistance from both East and West. Although the prestige stemmed from India's nonaligned stance, the nation was unable to prevent Cold War politics from becoming intertwined with interstate relations in South Asia. In the 1960s and 1970s, New Delhi's international position among developed and developing countries faded in the course of wars with China and Pakistan, disputes with other countries in South Asia, and India's attempt to balance Pakistan's support from the United States and China by signing the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in August 1971. Although India obtained substantial Soviet military and economic aid, which helped to strengthen the nation, India's influence was undercut regionally and internationally by the perception that its friendship with the Soviet Union prevented a more forthright condemnation of the Soviet presence in Afghanistan. In the 1980s, New Delhi improved relations with the United States, other developed countries, and China while continuing close ties with the Soviet Union. Relations with its South Asian neighbors, especially Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, occupied much of the energies of the Ministry of External Affairs.

In the 1990s, India's economic problems and the demise of the bipolar world political system have forced New Delhi to reassess its foreign policy and to adjust its foreign relations. Previous policies proved inadequate to cope with the serious domestic and international problems facing India. The end of the Cold War gutted the core meaning of nonalignment and left Indian foreign policy without significant direction. The hard, pragmatic considerations of the early 1990s were still viewed within the nonaligned framework of the past, but the disintegration of the Soviet Union removed much of India's international leverage, for which relations with Russia and the other post-Soviet states could not compensate.

Pragmatic security, economic considerations, and domestic political influences have reinforced New Delhi's reliance on the United States and other developed countries; caused New Delhi to abandon its anti-Israeli policy in the Middle East; and resulted in the courtship of the Central Asian republics and the newly industrializing economies of East and Southeast Asia. Although India shares the concerns of Russia, China, and many members of the Nonaligned Movement (see Glossary) about the preeminent position of the United States and other developed countries, different national interests and perceptions make it improbable that India can turn cooperation with these countries to its advantage on most international issues. Furthermore, although Cold War politics have ceased to be a factor in South Asia, the most intractable problems in India's relations with Pakistan--conflict over Kashmir, support for separatists, and nuclear and ballistic missile programs--still face the two countries. India foreign relations - 1995 loc data.



The diplomatic highlights of the year were the visits to India by President Clinton in March and President Putin in October and Prime Minister Vajpayee's own visit to the U.S. in September. As a result, Indo-U.S. relations were at their best in 50 years, while India's traditional friendship with Russia was reinforced. Clinton and Vajpayee issued a statement in New Delhi outlining their "shared vision of a closer and qualitatively new relationship for shaping a future of peace, prosperity, democracy, pluralism and freedom." Later, in their joint statement in Washington, D.C., they expressed their desire for a continuing institutional dialogue between the two countries. India reaffirmed its moratorium on nuclear explosive tests until the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty came into effect. There was considerable satisfaction in India that the U.S. had a better appreciation of the threat that India faced from externally sponsored terrorism. During his American visit Vajpayee addressed a joint session of the U.S. Congress as well as the millennium session of heads of state and government at the UN headquarters in New York City.

During President Putin's visit, a declaration of strategic partnership for the new century was signed, and the two countries agreed to work for a multipolar world and to combat terrorism. In addition, a series of agreements were signed to provide for cooperation in defense production, nuclear energy, and information technology. One of the pacts provided for Russia to supply India with 310 T-90 tanks, to enable licensed production in India of 140 Sukhoy fighter aircraft, to lease four TU-22 bombers, and to give an aircraft carrier that would be refitted at India's cost. The two countries were also to set up a joint working group on Afghanistan. Addressing the Indian Parliament, Putin emphasized cooperation to combat terrorism and endorsed the Indian position that the country's dispute with Pakistan over Jammu and Kashmir state should be settled bilaterally without external intervention. India decided to withdraw its troops from the UN peacekeeping force in Sierra Leone.