Physiographically, Orissa can be divided into three broad regions (1) The Coastal plains,
(2) The Middle mountainous country
(3) The Plateaus and rolling up lands.

Coastal Plains:

The coastal plains of Orissa stretch on the eastern coast of India from the Subarnarekha in the north-east to the Rushikulya in the south-west. This fertile region is known as the 'rice bowl' of Orissa. This is narrow in the north, widest in the middle, narrowest in the Chilika coast and broad in the south.

The coastal plain is a gift of six major rivers. The formation of the coastal plains depends on the rivers and their catchment's area. The rivers are: From north to the south, the Subarnarekha, the Burhabalanga, the Baitarani, the Brahmani, the Mahanadi and the Rushikulya. Most of the rivers have failed to develop true deltaic characteristics because of the strong off shore current which moves from Chennai to the Andhra coast and passes through Orissa coast.

According to the location, the coastal plain can be divided into three sub regions

a) The north coastal plains - the deltas of the Subarnarekha and the Burhabalanga upto the river Baitarani

b) The middle coastal plains - the combined deltas of the Baitarani, the Brahmani and Mahanadi

c) The southern coastal plains - the Rukshikulya plains, it can be divided into three zones parallel to the shoreline

i) The salt track along the coast.

ii) The arable tract or rice country in the middle

iii) The sub-montane tract to the west

The Salt tract:

The salt tract is a narrow belt which stretches just beyond the shore line for about 4.8 to 9.6 Km in land. In many places it is impregnated with salt and is completely deprived of agriculture. The innumerable sluggish and blackish streams make the area difficult to traverse. In the Mahanadi delta, this salt tract is covered with tidal forest known as the "Little Sunderbans", off Paradeep-Dhamra coast. In the Devi-Daya sector, Casuarina forests and plantations are found. The forest belt all along the coast merges with a narrow belt of pasture.

The Arable tract:

The grass belt merges into the vast plains. The endless stretches of rice lands is the fundamental characteristic. Most of these places are occupied by village sites so as to be free from the annual inundation. The rivers have formed levees and during high floods they inundate vast areas, causing grave danger to human lives, cattle population and agriculture parts of this arable tract are protected from floods and are irrigated by gravity.

This is the richest part of the whole of Orissa as far as agriculture is concerned.

The Sub montane tract:

This is the meeting zone of the arable tract and the spurs of the Eastern Ghats. It is termed as the 'zone of transition'. Soil erosion is rampant here. Under this predominating red soil, blocks of laterite are buried and at times they crop up to the surface, turning the area barren and desolate. In this zone low level laterites are formed. But patches of fertile area are not uncommon having rich vegetation. The natural vegetation varies from prickly thorns and stunted shrubs to Sal forests. The absence of a coastal forest belt is most striking. This is because of the lack of a marshy strip due to higher orography.

The Mahanadi Delta:

The Mahanadi delta has developed in seven different stages. The stages of development have occurred at 26, 18, 15, 9, 6 and 1.5 metre contours. After the seventh stage of delta development there is an upliftment as a result of which three sets of parallel sand dumes developed along the coast. These raised sand ridges brought changes in the drainage pattern and in deltaic morphology. These parallel sand dumes have the maximum development between the Chilika and the Devi mouth and from there up to north of Dhamra. Several lagoons of varied sizes have been formed. The best examples are the Sar Pata and the Samagara Pata located to the north of Puri.

The Coastal Line:

Orissa has a coastal line of 529 Km from the marshes of Ichhapuram in the south to the east of Subarnarekha in the north-east. The Orissa coast has bulged out in the middle portion from Brahmagiri on Chilika lake in the south-west to Chandbali in the north-east where the Mahanadi, the Brahmani and the Baitarani have formed a combined delta.

History of Orissa

Medieval HistoryAccording to the Puranas Kalinga is known to be a powerful kingdom as early as the time of the Kurukshetra battle. Mahapadmananda conquered and instituted Kalinga to his extensive empire. Although Kalinga lost her independence, she became economically prosperous under the Nanda rule. The last Nanda king was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya rule in Magadha. Kalinga under the Mauryan.

The Reign of Ashoka
The son of Vindusara - Ashoka The Great.... who invaded Kalinga in 261 B.C. and succeeded in occupying Kalinga. The Kalinga War was one of the most dreadful and ponderous nature taking the lives of as many as 1,00,000 people. 1,50,000 were taken as prisoner of war, while about the same number died as a consequences of the war. Ashoka could not the bear the horrendous slaughter caused by the war and therefore took up the path of non-violence and become the follower of Buddhism. Ashoka tried to placate the unconquered Atavika people and desired to conquer their heart by love. That was the principle of Dharmavijaya and was followed by Asoka after the Kalinga War. Kalinga became one of the administrative provisions in the empire of Magadha with headquarters of a Kumara (Viceroy) located at Tosali.

Asoka believed in generous administration and a well organized government. Buddhism spared over Kalinga and was accepted as a state religion. Ashoka also took a great deal of interest in developing the art of stone masonry, edicts were engraved on the Dhauli and Jaugada rocks to teach the religious principles to the people. Asoka died in 232 B.C. and the Maurya empire lasted up to 185 B.C.

Mahameghavahana Kharavela
In the second half of the 1st century BC, the third ruler of this dynasty was Kahravela. The Hatigumpha inscription in Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar purveys detailed accounts about the life and flourishing of Kharavela kingdom. On the premature death of Kharavela's father, he took up the administration and become the most successful ruler of his times.

The Hatigumpha inscription records the work of Kharavela up to his thirteenth ruling year after that records are not available. He was probably succeeded by his son Kudepasiri. It is known from some recently discovered inscriptions of Guntupalli and Velpuru in Andhra Pradesh that the Mahameghavahana dynasty continued to rule over Kalinga and Mahishaka up to the 1st century AD.

The Satavahanas and the Murundas
The Satavahana king Goutamiputra Satakarni ruled Kalinga early in the second century. According to some scholars, Mahrarja Rajadhiraja Dharmadamadhara's gold coin was found from Sisupalgarh excavation who is considered as a Jaina king belonging to Murunda family which ruled over parts of Bihar and Orissa. The Bhadrak stone inscription of Maharaja Ganabhadra datable to the third century AD also indicates the rule of the Murundas in Orissa.

Thereafter the Murundas of Kalinga were conquered by the rising Naga dynasties of Kausambi, Ahichhatra, Padmavati and Vindhyatavi.

The Durjayas

About the middle of the sixth century A.D. a chief named Ranadurjaya established his rule in South Kalinga with Pishtapura as his capital. The Mudgalas of Tosali were conquered by the Durjaya king Prithvimaharaja. The kingdom was subsequently destroyed by Sasanka who was ruling in some parts of Orissa .

The Upcoming Of The Mandala States
Some semi-independent province known as the Mandalas developed in between the kingdom of Bhaumas and the Somavamsis remained faithfulness to the Bhauma rulers. The ruling dynasties of those Mandalas were :
(1) the Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala
(2) the Bhanjas of Khijjinga Mandala
(3) the Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala
(4) the Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala
(5) the Nandodbhavas of Airavatta Mandala
(6) the Mayuras of Banei Mandala and
(7) and Gangas of Svetaka Mandala.

The Royal Gangas
The Eastern Gangas who started their rule in Kalinga about the end of the 5th century AD continued as a small power till the time of Vajrahasta V who came to the throne in 1038 A.D.

Mukundadeva
Mukundadeva came to the throne in 1559 by betrayal and slaughter. He belonged to the Chalukya family. In 1560 Sultan Ghiyasuddin Jallal Shah of Bengal invaded Orissa and marched up to Jajpur. Mukundadeva defeated him and drove him out of Orissa. During that time Akbar was planning to conquer Bengal and made alliance with Mukundadeva for that purpose. In 1567 when Akbar was busy in the invasion of Chitor, Sultan Karrani invaded Orissa. The Mughal Governor of Bihar, Munim Khan became nonchalant and Mukundadeva confronted the invasion of Bengal single-handed. He was defeated by the Sultan Karrani and took refuge in the fort of Kotsima, where Sultan Karrani tormented him. Mukundadeva made a treaty with Suleiman Karranim and fought against Ramachandra Bhanja where he lost his life at the hands of Ramachandra Bhanja. Later on Ramachandra was also defeated and killed by Bayazid and Orissa was conquered by the Afghans of Bengal in 1568 AD.

Since 1568 up To Independence
The year 1568 is considered as an important state in the history of Orissa that can be divided into the glorious era --- gratifying past and the dark, obscure period which was ahead. Orissa maintained her political vigor with successive powerful ruling dynasties and made a distinction of her own within the wider intricacy of Indian civilization. In the fields of art, architecture, religion, philosophy and literature, ancient Orissa made notable achievements.
The Declining Phase of Orissa

Not very late internal disorder, wars and invasions altogether were the main cause to bring about the downfall of mediaeval Orissa. Orissa was one of the last of the Indian territories to surrender to the Muslims rule. The Muslim ruler of Bengal, Suleiman Karrani succeeded in vanquishing the land of Orissa in 1568, ending thereby the independence of this powerful Hindu kingdom.

The Rulers of Afghan
Orissa came under the rule of the Afghans with the victory of Karrani in Orissa. But fortunately the new rulers could not establish their authority in the effective manner. Suleiman Karrani died in 1572. Daud Karrani, his younger brother took up the throne as the ruler of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. During this time Mughal Emperor Akbar whose aim was to extend his empire, had his eyes over the state for the long time as he got the opportunity he fought a battle and captured Orissa. There started the rule of Mughals Empire in Orissa.

The Glorious Phase of Mughal Rule
Mughals could never had a very strong footing on the land of Orissa due to its terrain. Akbar was contented that the territory of Orissa is added into its province. Thus, in most parts of Orissa, local rulers enjoyed their autonomous authority and semi-independent status. Akbar, true to his liberal policies and principles, even paid respect to Raja Ramachandra Deva-I of Khordha, authorizing him to enjoy the courtly position of a subordinate king.

Orissa constituted into a separate province in 1607and Cuttack was declared its capital during the rule of Akbar's son Jahangir and his successors. Orissa enjoyed this status till the end of the rule of the Great Mughals.

Orissa was ruled by Mughals for about two centuries, but there was no endeavor on their part to convert the people to Islam. When the Mughal Empire began to decay, the Nazim of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, Aliverdi Khan, became independent. The Marathas played a major role in declining of the Mughal Empire. There started a conflict between Aliverdi and the Marathas, which finally ended in the Maratha acquisition of Orissa.

Marathas Brought Great Development To The Region
The Maratha administration of Orissa functionally began from the year 1751. Maratha brought lot of developments into the region. They encouraged pilgrimage to Orissa from other parts of India, due to the increasing esteem and fame of the Jagannath Temple. The great festivals of Puri received sufficient patronage. Marathas aslo had a great role in the boosting up of Oriya literature. It made a rapid progress-- the Kavya and Padya literature, prose and biographical literature, Puranic and historical writings, besides devotional poetry, made immense advancement.
But this glorious phase of Maratha rule could only lasted for not more then half a century. There rises the British power in the region.

Finally Orissa Came In The Hands Of British Rule
In 1633, the British setup a trade centre at Hariharpur, one of the first of their settlements in India. Their subsequent establishment at Baleshwar on river Burhabalanga and at Pipili on river Subarnarekha grew into booming trade centres.

After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Buxar in 1764 the craving of the British Empire reached its heights, and they wanted to acquire as much of Indian territories as possible. With all means of hook and crook slowly and steadily they started capturing the territories of Indian sub-continent and Orissa being so near to Bengal was never a hassle. The treaty of Deogarh, signed on 17 December 1803, ended the Maratha rule and Orissa was under the regime of British Rule.

Finally Orissa Came In The Hands Of British Rule
In 1633, the British setup a trade centre at Hariharpur, one of the first of their settlements in India. Their subsequent establishment at Baleshwar on river Burhabalanga and at Pipili on river Subarnarekha grew into booming trade centres.

After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Buxar in 1764 the craving of the British Empire reached its heights, and they wanted to acquire as much of Indian territories as possible. With all means of hook and crook slowly and steadily they started capturing the territories of Indian sub-continent and Orissa being so near to Bengal was never a hassle. The treaty of Deogarh, signed on 17 December 1803, ended the Maratha rule and Orissa was under the regime of British Rule.

Freedom Struggle In Orissa
The Indian National Congress was born in 1885, the Orissa was all ready for taking up a initiative in the advancing of the Congress beliefs and programs.

Orissa marched on the path of freedom struggle with the rest of India for national independence. With the active participation of Oriya inhabitants, started the struggle of freedom movement in a daring spirit. The current of the Non-Co-operation Movement swept over Orissa. Gandhiji's visit to Orissa in 1921 was a major success as he got the tremendous response for his struggle from all sections of the people. The message touched the hearts of the rural mass as well as the elite of Orissa. Many of the renowned lawyers gave up their legal profession --- Gopabandhu Choudhury, Surendra Nath Das and Muhammed Hanif gave up their government jobs. Pandit Nilakantha Das left the job of Calcutta University to serve in a national school. Orissa national movement was further strengthened by the visit of other great leaders like, Motital Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose in 1922.

As the ultimate effort of the National Congress to secure the complete independence, the Quit India Movement was started in August 1942, Orissa had an active role in this revolution. The revolution in Orissa arose in the hearts of poor and common people who required no leadership to rise, but occupied an impulsive determination to take part in revolution.

With the coming of the independence in August 1947 the issue of the merger of the states was taken up immediately, for which the grounds had long been prepared by the Praja Mandal Movements.
With the merger of the states, the new Orissa became nearly twice as big in size, and with the addition of 50 per cent more people to its existing population, it became one of the major territories of the Indian sub-continent. Today Orissa has far reached its goals, treasuring immense resources of unlimited minerals, dense forests, fertile lands and numerous rivers.